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Field
Guide to Common Western Grasshoppers Introduction | External Anatomy | Names and Species | Grasshopper Populations | Life Cycles | Seasonal Occurrence and Behavior | Collections and Survey | Grasslands of North America | Food Plants | Glossary | Selected References | Species Fact Sheets | (PDF) There are probably as many grasshopper life histories as there are grasshopper species. Each species appears to possess a unique set of ecological and physiological adaptations that allow it to grow, survive, and reproduce in its environment. The habitat furnishes individuals with nutritive food plants, adequate living space, satisfactory soil conditions for the eggs, and favorable or tolerable physical and biotic relationships for all the life stages. Because of the distinctive habits and behaviors of grasshoppers, the particular facts of their life histories will be discussed later in treatment of the individual species.
All grasshoppers begin their lives as eggs. Yet eggs represent the least known stage of the grasshopper life cycle. They are laid in the soil of the habitat and develop hidden from the view of humans. Eggs of a few species, however, have been studied in both field and laboratory (Fig. 9). Incubation of eggs begins immediately after females deposit them in the soil. The embryo, at first a tiny disc of cells laying on the ventral side of the yolk surface and at the posterior end of the eggs (Fig. 10), grows rapidly, receiving nourishment from the nutrient stores in the yolk.
Figure 10. Selected
stages in the development of a grasshopper embryo (Melaoplus
sanguinipes) held at a constant temperature of 30 C. Left two
figures show whole egg; other figures show embryos removed from
egg. (Illustrations adapted from Riegert, 1961; stages identified
and designated for embryos of Aulocara elliotti by Saralee
Visscher, 1966). In seven days the embryo of the migratory grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes, held at an incubation temperature of 30½C, reaches Stage 19. In this stage the embryos of many rangeland species such as Aulocara elliotti and Camnula pellucida cease growth and begin a diapause. The embryo of the migratory grasshopper, however, continues to develop and at Stage 20 actively moves from the ventral to the dorsal surface and revolves 180° on its long axis (see Figure 10, Stage 20). After 15 days the embryo has grown to Stage 24, having achieved 80 percent of its development. It then ceases growth and enters diapause. The embryo of the twostriped grasshopper, and probably others also, enter diapause at this stage. Exposed to favorable incubation temperatures, the eggs of a few rangeland species, such as Arphia conspersa and Xanthippus corallipes, develop completely and hatch during the same summer they are laid. The immediate cause of cessation of embryonic growth (diapause) in eggs of the majority of rangeland grasshoppers appears to be the shutdown of growth hormones. The embryos remain physiologically active as transfer of nutrient materials from the yolk into the embryonic fat body and other tissues continues. Cold temperatures of winter, however, slow or end this process and embryos enter a dormant period. For eggs laid in temperate regions to reach their maximum development before diapause, they must receive sufficient heat, usually measured as day-degrees of heat accumulated in the soil at egg depth. Eggs deposited late in the season or during a cold summer may not receive this amount of heat, especially in northern areas such as the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. Eggs that do not reach their potential stage of development have reduced hatchability the following spring and thus do not contribute as much to the maintenance of a population. During winter, low ground temperatures eventually break egg diapause. As soon as the ground warms above threshold soil temperatures of 50 to 55°F in spring, the embryos are ready to continue their development. Research has shown that for the few species studied, eggs need 400 day-degrees by fall to attain maximum embryonic growth and another 150 day-degrees in spring to initiate hatching. For completion of embryonic growth from start to finish, eggs require totals of 500 to 600 day-degrees. In spring the emergence of hatching grasshoppers may be readily
observed. All embryos of a single pod usually wriggle out one after
another within several minutes. Once out, they immediately shed
an embryonic membrane called the serosa. An individual hatchling,
lying on its side or back and squirming, takes only a few minutes
to free itself (Fig. 11). During this time the hatchlings are susceptible
to predation by ants. After the shedding of the membrane the young
grasshoppers stand upright and are able to jump away and escape
attacking predators. In spring, young grasshoppers have available
green and nutritious host plants. The majority of individuals in
grasslands are grass feeders, but individuals of some species are
mixed feeders, eating both grasses and forbs. Others are strictly
forb feeders. As insects grow and develop, they molt at intervals, changing structures and their form. This process is called metamorphosis. A number of insects undergo gradual (simple) metamorphosis, such as grasshoppers. With this type of metamorphosis the insect that hatches looks like the adult except for its smaller size, lack of wings, fewer antennal segments, and rudimentary genitalia (Fig. 11). Other insects with gradual metamorphosis include the true bugs, aphids, leafhoppers, crickets, and cockroaches. The majority of insects undergo complete (complex) metamorphosis, as the eggs hatch into wormlike larvae adapted for feeding and have a vastly different appearance from that of the adult insect. Before full-grown larvae can become adult insects they must enter into the pupal stage. In this stage they develop and grow the adult structures. Common examples of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis are beetles, butterflies, bees, wasps, and flies. For young grasshoppers to continue their growth and development and reach the adult stage, they must periodically molt or shed their outer skin (Fig. 11). Depending on species and sex, they molt four to six times during their nymphal or immature life. The insect between molts is referred to as an instar; a species with five molts thus has five instars. After shedding the serosal skin, the newly hatched nymph is the first instar. After each molt the instar increases by one so that the nymph consecutively becomes a second, third, fourth, and fifth instar. When the fifth instar molts, the grasshopper becomes an adult or an imago. The new adult has fully functional wings but is not yet ready to reproduce. The female has a preoviposition period of one to two weeks during which she increases in weight and matures the first batch of eggs. Having mated with a male of her species, the female digs a small hole in the soil with her ovipositor and deposits the first group of eggs. Once egg laying begins, the female continues to deposit eggs regularly for the rest of her short life. Depending on the species, production may range from three pods per week to one pod every one to two weeks. The species that lay fewer eggs per pod oviposit more often than those that lay more eggs per pod. The egg pods of grasshoppers vary not only in the number of eggs they contain but also in their size, shape, and structure. Based on structure, four types have been recognized. In type I a stout pod forms from frothy glue and soil surrounding the eggs; froth is lacking between the eggs. In type II a weaker pod is formed from frothy glue between and surrounding the eggs. In type III frothy glue is present between the eggs but does not completely surround them. In type IV only a small amount of froth is secreted on the last eggs of a clutch, and most of the eggs lie loosely in the soil. Grasshopper eggs themselves vary in size, color, and shell sculpturing. Depending on the species eggs range from 4 to 9 mm long and may be white, yellow, olive, tan, brownish red, or dark brown. Eggs of certain species are two-toned brown and tan. Events in the life cycle of an individual species of grasshopper — hatching, nymphal development, and adulthood — occur over extended periods. The eggs may hatch over a period of three to four weeks. Nymphs may be present in the habitat eight to ten weeks and adults nine to 11 weeks. Because of the overlapping of stages and instars, raw field data obtained by sampling populations do not answer several important questions. For example, how many eggs hatched? How many individuals molted successfully to the next instar? What was the average duration of each instar? How many became adults? What was the average length of life and the average fecundity of adult females? To obtain answers to these questions, detailed sampling data must be treated mathematically.
Laboratory data may also be used in studying grasshopper life histories. Table 4 provides information on the life history of the migratory grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes, reared at a constant temperature of 86°F and 30-35% relative humidity and fed a nutritious diet of dry feed, green wheat, and dandelion leaves. The entire nymphal period averages 25 days for males and 30 days for females. Each instar takes four to five days to complete development except for the last instar, which takes seven days. Adult longevity of males averages 51 days and females, 52 days. Longevity of adults in the field is no doubt briefer because of the natural predators and parasites cutting short the lives of their prey. Introduction | External Anatomy | Names and Species | Grasshopper Populations | Life Cycles | Seasonal Occurrence and Behavior | Collections and Survey | Grasslands of North America | Food Plants | Glossary | Selected References | Species Fact Sheets | (PDF) |
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